The social transformation in the Later Vedic Period is much more clearly reflected in the references in the Vedic texts.
The social divisions of varna became more established.
Teaching was seen as the occupation of the Brahmanas.
The wives of Brahmanas and cows were given important status.
Rajanya refers to kshatriyas and they were the warriors and rulers who received bali as tax.
Striking changes took place in the Varna System.
There was an increase in the privileges of the two higher classes, the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas at the cost of the Vaisyas and Sudras.
In the Panchavimsa Brahmana, the Kshatriya is placed first, higher than the Brahmana but in the Satapatha Brahmana, the Brahmana is placed higher than Kshatriya.
In later Vedic society the importance of the purohita (priest) is stressed, as mentioned in the Vedic texts.
The Kshatriyas challenged Brahmanical supremacy and their exclusive privilege of entering the asramas, a regulated four stage life namely brahmacharya, grihasta, vanaprastha and sanyasa.
The outcome of this was the birth of Jainism, Buddhism and Ajivakam.
The system of four Varnas had taken deep root and became rigid in the course of time.
The popularity of rituals helped the Brahmanas to attain power.
Brahmanas became important and the kings supported them, although they had conflicts with Rajanyas, the warrior nobles.
The concept of dvija (twice-born) developed and the upanayana (sacred thread) was limited to the upper sections of the society.
This ceremony marked the initiation for education.
The fourth varna was denied this privilege and the Gayatri mantra could not be recited by the Sudras.
Women were also denied upanayana and Gayatri mantra.
The king asserted his authority over the three varnas.
The Aitreya Brahmana refers to the Brahmana as the seeker of support and he could be removed by king from his position.
Certain craft groups managed to attain higher status.
For example, the Rathakaras, the chariot makers, had the right to wear the sacred thread.
Vaisya referred to the common people. They were involved in agriculture, cattle breeding and artisans. Later they became traders. Vaisyas paid tax to the kings.
Some social groups were placed in ranking even below the Sudras.
However, cross varna marriages did happen.
The idea of gotra emerged in the later Vedic period.
Gotra literally meant ‘cowpen’ and it referred to a group of people from a common ancestor.
Persons of the same gotra were considered as brothers and sisters and could not therefore intermarry.
Several unilineal descent groups existed with common ancestors.
Several related clans formed the tribe.
Family
The household became more structured, which means it became more organised.
The family was an important social unit.
The family was patriarchal with patrilineal descent.
The relations within the family were hierarchical.
Polygyny (taking many wives) was prevalent.
Several household rituals were also developed for the welfare of the family.
The married man with his wife was the yajamana.
The concept of asramas, referring to various stage of life, was not well established in this time.
While brahmacharya, grihasta and vanaprastha are mentioned, sanyasa had not developed.
Women
The status of women declined as the society became more structured and the patriarchal family became more important.
In the family the father was the head.
The right of primogeniture was strong.
Though women had participated in rituals in the Rig Vedic period, they were excluded in the later Vedic period.
Daughters are spoken of as a source of trouble.
Their work was to look after the cattle, milking animals and fetching water.
